Research - International Research Journal of Plant Science ( 2023) Volume 14, Issue 6
, Manuscript No. IRJPS-23-121038; Published: 27-Dec-2023, DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/irjps.2023.47
The regeneration status and species interactions reflect the health and sustainability of forests under given site conditions. The tropical forest faces several challenges for its sustenance in terms of regeneration, biodiversity, and natural balance due to various abiotic and biotic factors. Numerous factors influence the admixture and stratification of forests, with forest fires appearing to be one of the more challenging and common biotic factors. The present study explores the forest fire influence on regeneration, species interaction, and population dynamics in a protected area, Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary, (BWS) of Chhattisgarh state of India. The entire area was divided into four distinct sites, i.e., no fire zone (NFZ), low fire zones (LFZ), medium fire (MFZ) and high fire zones (HFZ) depending upon geo-referenced data and ground truth verification A total of 41 tree species (23 families) was recorded in the BWS. The dominant family was Rubiaceae followed by Leguminosae and Combretaceae. The density and girth relationship showed that the 86.37 −91.71% of individuals had ≤10 cm girth i.e. low girth class structure and 8.29−13.63% were in girth classes exceeding 10 cm GBH. The population structure revealed that tree, (> 10 cm, dbh) sapling ( > 30 cm, height), and seedling (height up to 30 cm) species show a consistent decrease in number from the seedling to sapling stage and also from the sapling to trees stage. Among different fire regimes, Anogeissus latifolia, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyrous melanoxylon, Lannea coromandelica, Shorea robusta, and Syzygium cumini exhibited good regeneration potential. The total biomass under different fire regimes varied from 116.03-358.36 Mg ha-1 , being highest under NFZ and lowest in HFZ, respectively. It is evident that keeping the forest fire under control will maintain its biodiversity and overall ecology, including nutrient cycling, regeneration, and ecosystem services, all of which contribute to its improved sustainability. Moreover, the species having good regeneration potential should be planted where the stocking is not up to the mark and where the incidence of fire is more common and frequent
Biomass, Forest fire, Fire regimes, Population structure, Regeneration.
Forest fire is a common and mostly a human-made phenomenon in India as well as in most of tropical countries across the world (Neeraja et al., 2021; De Andrade et al., 2020; Chandra and Bhardwaj, 2015; Kittur et al., 2014; Jhariya et al., 2012, 2014). A forest fire may be beneficial or devastating depending upon the severity, intensity, fire return interval, fuel load as well as the current environmental and site conditions (Dhar et al., 2023; Jhariya and Singh, 2021a, 2021b). Repeated and highly intense fire is the most devastating and consumes all the organic material and it volatilizes important macronutrients, while the low severity of fire makes nutrients available and supports the growth of the understory and post-fire community (Thonicke et al., 2001). Hence fire management may help in improving soil properties that affect vegetation, its regeneration, and development (Bargali et al., 2023; Schafer and Mack, 2010; Certini, 2005).
Forest regeneration, species richness, and composition are the important indicators that reflect and determine the biodiversity and overall health of the forest ecosystem and are vulnerable to biotic and abiotic environmental gradients both natural and anthropogenic (Barlow et al., 2016). Forest fire is one of the important disturbances that later altered the forest ecosystem significantly (De Andrade et al., 2020). However, the impact of forest fires is not uniform or equal and is dependent upon various components of the environment (Mina et al., 2023). Every year, millions of hectares of forest globally are burned by forest fires causing incalculable social, economic, and environmental loss.
In India, forest fire is a very common phenomenon and this event takes place every year, especially in the deciduous forest. As per the report of (Gubbi 2003), approximately 55% of the Indian forest is prone to fire annually, which causes enormous loss and alteration in the forest stand and its dynamics (Saha and Howe, 2006). Although, changes and alterations in the vegetation naturally take place slowly, disturbances like forest fires can accelerate and have a significant impact on floristic structure and composition. Controlled fire may be beneficial from regeneration, nutrient cycling, forest weed, and plantation management points of view but uncontrolled fire has a detrimental influence on the biota of the region. Therefore, a forest fire is regarded as “a good servant but a bad master”(FRI, 2018). Moreover, it arrests the successional process as well as leads to the growth and development of secondary, unwanted, and fire- hardy species in the region (Gosper et al., 2012; Jhariya et al., 2014; Verma and Jayakumar, 2015; Neeraja et al., 2021).
The state of Chhattisgarh is bestowed with rich forest cover and biodiversity. However, rapid population growth, urbanization, developmental activity, and exploitation of bio-resources have put pressure on the valuable tropical forest and its biota. Land use changes, deforestation, grazing, and forest fires become the major threats that alter the forest structure, diversity, and future stand dynamics (Devi et al., 2023). Forest fire is one of the serious concerns, and has become a major threat and concern for forest management due to its incidence and frequent occurrence in certain pockets of the state. Therefore, the present research investigation was carried out to evaluate the following: (1) the effects of forest fires on floristic and population structure under varying fire regimes; (2) the effects of forest fires on the state of regeneration at the species and site levels; and (3) the aboveground biomass of trees under different fire regimes.
Study site
Chhattisgarh state in India is bestowed with abundant natural resources and retains approximately 44% of the geographical area under the forests. The agroecological conditions of the state support the vast floral and faunal diversity in the state. The study site (Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary, BWS) is an important protected site in Chhattisgarh, Central India. The natural forest of the study site is reflected by rich, diverse, and complex floral and faunal biodiversity (Jhariya and Singh 2021a, 2021b). The BWS is situated in the dry tropical forest of the Maikla Range of the Satpura Hills and was established in 2001. The BWS sanctuary is situated between 21° 23′ to 22° 00′ N, 80° 58′ to 82° 34′ E., and at 677 msl.
Physiographically, the area is undulating with varying hillocks. The rocks of the region are granite and cysts. Entisols and Ultisols are the major soil types in the study area. The soil is nutrient-limited, alkaline, and spatially less variable (Baboo et al., 2017). The sanctuary area is characterized by a dry tropical climate. Monthly average temperature varies between 16.90C (January) and 36.00C (May). Mean annual temperature and rainfall average 26.40C and 976 mm, respectively (Jhariya, 2017a, 2017b).
Diverse types of vegetation occur in the BWS. The luxuriant forest occurs in the north and eastern parts of the BWS while the human-made forest of teak is common in the southern parts of BWS. Bamboo brakes and degraded mixed vegetation are mainly found in the western part of the study area (Champion and Seth, 1968). Accidental and intentional forest fires are most common in the BWS which influence the temporal and spatial distribution of flora.
Experimental design and analysis
The repeated reconnaissance along with monitoring of the field condition of the sanctuary were performed on four sites i.e., high fire zone (HFZ), medium fire zone (MFZ), low fire zone (LFZ), and no-fire zone (NFZ) in terms of tree species composition and fire disturbance regimes. On the basis of different fire regimes, the sites were categorized into HFZ, MFZ, LFZ, and NFZ. The fire regimes were categorized on the basis of historical statistics obtained from the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad and the state forest department followed by local inquiry in the study area (Kittur et al., 2014; Jhariya et al., 2012, 2014). After the demarcation of fire regimes, the one-hectare permanent plot in each site was marked and observations were recorded.
The floristic structure and composition of trees in different fire regimes were analysed through stratified random sampling using quadrats of 10 m x 10 m size. Tree GBH (Girth at breast height) was measured and recorded at quadrat as well as species level, within each of these quadrats sub-quadrats of 2 m x 2 m were placed for enumeration of saplings and seedlings. Vegetation data were quantitatively analysed following (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950). The frequency of species occurrence was analyzed following (Raunkiaer,1934) and (Hewit and Kellman, 2002). Population structure was determined following (Saxena and Singh,1984). The computation method of (Khan et al., 1987) was used for determining the regeneration of species under different fire regimes. For measuring the biomass, allometric equations developed by (Singh and Misra, 1979) and (Singh and Singh, 1991) were used for the tropical dry deciduous forests.
Floristic structure
The species composition of the sanctuary area reflects substantial variation in different vegetation storey as well as under different fire regimes. A sum of 41 tree species distributed into 23 families was recorded in the BWS. The dominant family was Rubiaceae followed by Leguminosae and Combretaceae (Table 1). In different vegetation layers, the species showed their higher frequency of occurrence in frequency class-A i.e., rare category, and occurred singly in different fire regimes. The Raunkiaer’s frequency classes revealed that higher presence of rare class (47-72%) followed by low frequency, intermediate class, moderately high frequency, and least representation in high frequency or common class (Table 2). The highest density in all the vegetation layers in different fire regimes was mostly measured for Shorea robusta and Diospyros melanoxylon (Table 3).
| Species | Family | Ditribution* |
|---|---|---|
| Adina cordifolia Hook.f. | Rubiaceae | Southern Asia |
| Aegle marmelos Linn. | Acanthaceae | India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal |
| Anogeissus latifolia Wall ex Bedd. | Combretaceae | India, Nepal, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka |
| Boswellia serrata Roxb. | Burseraceae | India, Pakistan |
| Bridelia retusa (Linn.) Spreng. | Euphorbiaceae | Bangladesh, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, southern China, Indochina, Thailand and Sumatra |
| Buchanania lanzan Spreng. | Anacardiaceae | The Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and adjacent parts of China |
| Careya arborea Roxb. | Lecythidaceae | The Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and Indochina |
| Casearia graveolens Dalz. | Salicaceae | Asia from Thailand to South Central China to Pakistan |
| Cassia fistula Linn. | Leguminosae | Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, from southern Pakistan through India and Sri Lanka to Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand |
| Catunaregam spinosa Thunb. | Rubiaceae | South Asia and other Asian countries |
| Choloroxylon swietenia DC. | Rutaceae | India, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar |
| Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. | Leguminosae | India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Burma and Indo-China |
| Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. | Dilleniaceae | Sulawesi to South-Central China to India and Sri Lanka |
| Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. | Ebenaceae | India and Sri Lanka |
| Diospyrous montana Roxb. | Ebenaceae | India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China to Australia |
| Emblica officinalis Gaertn | Euphorbiaceae | India |
| Gardenia latifolia (Aiton) Hortus Kew. | Rubiaceae | India to Bangladesh |
| Gardenia lucida Roxb | Rubiaceae | India, Africa, Asia |
| Gardenia resinifera Roth. | Rubiaceae | India |
| Garuga pinnata Roxb. | Burseraceae | India, China, Vietnam |
| Grewia tiliaefolia,Vahl. | Tiliaceae | India, Sri Lanka |
| Kydia calycina Roxb. | Malvaceae | The Indian subcontinent, southern China, and Southeast Asia |
| Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. | Lythraceae | Tropical southern Asia |
| Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. | Anacardiaceae | South and Southeast Asia, ranging from Sri Lanka to Southern China |
| Madhuca latifolia, Roxb. | Sapotaceae | India, Nepal, Myanmar and Sri Lanka |
| Mitragyna parviflora Roxb. | Rubiaceae | India and Sri Lanka |
| Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochr. | Leguminosae | India and Nepal |
| Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. | Leguminosae | India, Nepal, Sri Lanka |
| Saccopetalum tomentosum H.F.&Thoms. | Anonaceae | India |
| Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken | Sapindaceae | South East Asia, India |
| Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. | Oleaceae | India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos |
| Semecarpus anacardium L.f. | Anacardiaceae | India |
| Shorea robusta Gaertn.f. | Dipterocarpaceae | The Indian subcontinent, Myanmar, Nepal, Bangladesh |
| Sterculia urens Roxb. | Malvaceae | India |
| Stereospermum chelenoides DC. | Bignoniaceae | South Asia |
| Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels. | Myrtaceae | India, Asian country |
| Tectona grandis Linn. f. | Lamiaceae | Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka |
| Terminalia belerica Roxb. | Combretaceae | Tropical Asia, from India to Indonesia |
| Terminalia chebula Retz. | Combretaceae | South Asia, India, Nepal, China, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Vietnam |
| Terminalia tomentosa W&A. | Combretaceae | India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam |
| Zizyphus mouritiana Lamk. | Rhamnaceae | Indo-Malaysian region of South-East Asia |
| Layer | Fire regimes | Number of species in different frequency class | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | D | E | ||
| Tree | HFZ | 8 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| MFZ | 7 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
| LFZ | 12 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
| NFZ | 16 | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | |
| Sapling | HFZ | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| MFZ | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| LFZ | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| NFZ | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| Seedling | HFZ | 9 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| MFZ | 10 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | |
| LFZ | 14 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
| NFZ | 18 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
Table 2: Raunkiaer’s classification of vegetation under different fire regimes in Bhoramdeo wildlife sanctuary
| Species | High Fire Zone (HFZ) | Medium Fire Zone (MFZ) | Low Fire Zone (LFZ) | Non-Fire Zone (NFZ) | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| S | Sap | Tree | RS | S | Sap | Tree | RS | S | Sap | Tree | RS | S | Sap | Tree | RS | ||||
| Adina cordifolia | -- | -- | 20 | NR | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 20 | NR | -- | -- | 40 | NR | |||
| Aegle marmelos | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 250 | -- | 10 | FR | ||||
| Anogeissus latifolia | -- | -- | 30 | NR | 1500 | 250 | 30 | GR | 500 | -- | 40 | FR | 500 | 250 | 60 | GR | |||
| Boswellia serrata | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10 | NR | |||
| Bridelia retusa | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 250 | -- | -- | FR | 250 | -- | 20 | FR | |||
| Buchanania lanzan | 250 | -- | 10 | FR | 250 | 30 | FR | 1250 | 250 | 50 | GR | -- | 250 | 30 | PR | ||||
| Careya arborea | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10 | NR | 250 | -- | -- | FR | |||
| Casearia graveolens | 250 | -- | -- | FR | 1000 | -- | -- | FR | 1250 | -- | 40 | FR | 2000 | -- | 10 | FR | |||
| Cassia fistula | 500 | -- | -- | FR | 500 | -- | 10 | FR | -- | -- | -- | 1250 | -- | -- | FR | ||||
| Catunaregam spinosa | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 500 | -- | -- | FR | -- | -- | -- | -- | |||
| Choloroxylon swietenia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 500 | -- | -- | FR | -- | -- | -- | -- | |||
| Dalbergia paniculata | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10 | NR | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 20 | NR | ||||
| Dillenia pentagyna | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 500 | -- | -- | FR | -- | -- | -- | -- | |||
| Diospyros melanoxylon | 4750 | 250 | 10 | GR | 4250 | 500 | 50 | GR | 6500 | 500 | -- | GR | 2500 | 250 | 30 | GR | |||
| Diospyrous montana | 500 | -- | -- | FR | 500 | -- | -- | FR | -- | -- | -- | -- | 250 | -- | -- | FR | |||
| Emblica officinalis | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 30 | NR | -- | -- | 10 | NR | - | -- | 10 | NR | |||
| Gardenia latifolia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 500 | -- | -- | FR | 250 | -- | 10 | FR | |||
| Gardenia lucida | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10 | NR | |||
| Gardenia resinifera | 250 | -- | -- | FR | -- | -- | 20 | NR | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | |||
| Garuga pinnata | 250 | -- | -- | FR | -- | -- | -- | -- | 750 | -- | -- | FR | 250 | -- | -- | FR | |||
| Grewia tiliaefolia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 30 | NR | -- | -- | 10 | NR | 250 | -- | 30 | FR | |||
| Kydia calycina | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 30 | NR | |||
| Lagerstroemia parviflora | 1000 | -- | 20 | FR | -- | -- | 50 | NR | -- | -- | 10 | NR | 1000 | -- | 20 | FR | |||
| Lannea coromandelica | -- | -- | 20 | NR | -- | -- | 30 | NR | -- | -- | 40 | NR | 250 | 250 | 40 | GR | |||
| Madhuca latifolia | -- | -- | 20 | NR | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10 | NR | 250 | 60 | FR | ||||
| Mitragyna parviflora | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 20 | NR | |||
| Ougeinia oojeinensis | -- | -- | 20 | NR | -- | -- | 40 | NR | -- | 250 | 90 | PR | -- | 500 | 80 | PR | |||
| Pterocarpus marsupium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 750 | -- | 10 | FR | -- | -- | 20 | NR | |||
| Saccopetalum tomentosum | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 250 | -- | 50 | FR | ||||
| Schleichera oleosa | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10 | NR | 250 | -- | 10 | FR | 1000 | -- | 10 | FR | |||
| Schrebera swietenioides | 500 | -- | -- | FR | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | |||
| Semecarpus anacardium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 20 | NR | -- | -- | -- | -- | |||
| Shorea robusta | 3500 | 500 | 180 | GR | 2500 | 250 | 120 | GR | 4500 | 250 | 110 | GR | 4250 | 250 | 100 | GR | |||
| Sterculia urens | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 250 | -- | 30 | FR | |||
| Stereospermum chelenoides | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 250 | -- | 20 | FR | -- | -- | -- | -- | |||
| Syzygium cumini | 500 | -- | FR | 250 | FR | 250 | -- | -- | FR | 1500 | 250 | 20 | GR | ||||||
| Tectona grandis | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 30 | NR | |||
| Terminalia belerica | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10 | NR | 250 | -- | -- | FR | |||
| Terminalia chebula | -- | -- | 30 | NR | -- | -- | 20 | NR | 250 | -- | 20 | FR | 250 | -- | 20 | FR | |||
| Terminalia tomentosa | 250 | -- | 20 | FR | 750 | -- | 10 | FR | 1000 | 250 | 80 | GR | 750 | -- | 60 | FR | |||
| Zizyphus mouritiana | -- | -- | -- | -- | 250 | -- | -- | FR | 500 | -- | -- | FR | 250 | -- | -- | FR | |||
Note: S= seedling, Sap= saplings, RS= regeneration status, GR= good regeneration, FR= fair regeneration, PR= poor regeneration, NR= not regenerating.
Stand density-GBH relationship
Density and GBH relationship showed exponential model [Y = exp (a – bx)] under different fire regimes. About 86.37−91.71% of vegetation reflects ≤10 cm girth, whereas 8.29−13.63% individuals had a >10 cm GBH (Figure 1) and 1.58–2.18% of individuals exceeded > 50 cm GBH. The pooled species density as per the GBH reflects the following equation:
Figure 1. Relationship between density of seedling, sapling and trees with mean girth class (cm) are: 1 = <10; 2 = > 10 - < 30; 3 = > 30 - < 50; 4 = > 50 - < 70; 5 = > 70 - < 90; 6 = > 90 - < 110; 7 = > 110.Where 1, 2 and 3, respectively are seedling, sapling and tree.
Y= exp [10113-1.03x] for HFZ (r2=0.899 p <5%) (1)
Y= exp [9326-0.92x] for MFZ (r2=0.837 p <5%) (2)
Y= exp [12164-0.91x] for LFZ (r2=0.820 p <5%) (3)
Y= exp [11485-0.82x] for NFZ (r2=0.803 p <5%) (4)
Population structure
The population structure represents the size and age class gradation of the individuals under different fire regimes which are demonstrated in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2. Population structures of major tree species of high fire zone of Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary. Size classes are made on the basis of GBH.
Figure 3. Population structures of major tree species of medium fire zone of Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary. Size classes are made on the basis of GBH.
Figure 4. Population structures of major tree species of low fire zone of Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary. Size classes are made on the basis of GBH.
Figure 5. Population structures of major tree species of no fire zone of Bhoramdeo Wildlife Sanctuary. Size classes are made on the basis of GBH.
In HFZ (Figure 2), class (A) was dominant except for Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, Lannea coromandelica, Madhuca latifolia, Terminalia chebula and Ougeinia oojeinensis. The seedling class was found to be dominated in Diospyros melanoxylon and Shorea robusta, both together contributed 66% in this class. Class (B) revealed a higher presence of Shorea robusta. Class (C) and D showed dominancy of A. latifolia, M. latifolia, S. robusta, L. coromandelica, O. oojeinensis, and T. chebula. The older class (E) is represented as negligible or nil, and S. robusta was the only species represented by class E. The proportion of seedlings to the higher class (D) decreased steadily (e.g. Buchanania lanzan, D. melanoxylon, and S. robusta).
The population structure in MFZ (Figure 3) showed higher contribution by seedling class (A) and dominancy of D. melanoxylon and S. robusta which contribute 54% of the total population. Class (B) was negligible and only represented by A. latifolia, D. melanoxylon, and S. robusta. Intermediate-size class (C) was abundant on this site and represented by B. lanzan, D. melanoxylon, Lagerstroemia parviflora, O. oojeinensis, Phyllanthus emblica, and S. robusta. Class (D) and (E) were mostly negligible or nil except for D. melanoxylon, L. coromandelica, and S. robusta.
In LFZ, S. robusta represents all classes, whereas B. lanzan and T. tomentosa represent all size classes except class (E). In class (A), D. melanoxylon and S. robusta contribute 88% of the total population. The size class (C) is the dominant class over (D) and class (E). Class (E) was found in A. cordifolia, M. latifolia, O. oojeinensis, Pterocarpus marsupium and S. robusta (Figure 4).
In NFZ, S. robusta revealed all classes in population structure. A. latifolia and D. melanoxylon were found in all classes except class (E). Careya arborea, D. melanoxylon, Garuga pinnata, Terminalia belarica, and Zizyphus mauritiana were represented only by seedling size class (A). Class (B) and (C) revealed the dominancy of O. oojeinensis (Figure 5).
Wildfire and regeneration status
The seedlings and saplings proportion in the vegetation stand is regarded as the regeneration potential of the species. In HFZ, only D. melanoxylon and S. robusta species showed good regeneration potential. In MFZ, A. latifolia, D. melanoxylon,and S. robusta have good regeneration. In LFZ, B. lanzan, D. melanoxylon,and S. robusta have good generation potential. In NFZ, A. latifolia, D. melanoxylon, L. coromandelica, S. robusta,and S. cumini showed good regeneration potential (Table 3). The regeneration status revealed that in HFZ only 11.11% of species were showing good regeneration potential and 33.33% were not regenerating while in the MFZ 15.79% showed good regeneration and 47.37% of species were not regenerating. In LFZ 14.29% of species showed good regeneration potential while 32.14% of species not regenerating. In NFZ 14.71% of species showed good regeneration, 52.94% had fair regeneration, and 26.47% of species were not regenerating well (Table 4).
| Fire Zones | Good regeneration | Fair regeneration | Poor regeneration | Not regenerating |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HFZ | 11.11 | 55.56 | 0.00 | 33.33 |
| MFZ | 15.79 | 36.84 | 0.00 | 47.37 |
| LFZ | 14.29 | 50.00 | 3.57 | 32.14 |
| NFZ | 14.71 | 52.94 | 5.88 | 26.47 |
Forest biomasss
The biomass of the tree species in different fire regimes is given in (Table 5). The total biomass under different fire regimes varied from 116.03-358.36 Mg ha-1, being highest under NFZ and lowest in HFZ, respectively. In HFZ, bole, branch, leaf, and root biomass were 36.87 Mg ha-1, 59.89 Mg ha-1, 4.13 Mg ha-1, and 15.15 Mg ha-1, respectively. In MFZ, bole, branch, leaf, and root biomass were 52.60 Mg ha-1, 76.26 Mg ha-1, 5.31 Mg ha-1, and 20.66 Mg ha-1, respectively. In LFZ, bole, branch, leaf, and root biomass were 76.60 Mg ha-1, 120.40 Mg ha-1, 7.62 Mg ha-1, and 28.83 Mg ha-1, respectively. In NFZ, bole, branch, leaf, and root biomass were 118.7 Mg ha-1, 182.72 Mg ha-1, 12.22 Mg ha-1, and 44.72 Mg ha-1, respectively. Among the different species, S. robusta was found to be the dominant species and contributed the highest biomass in all the studied sites.
| Species | HFZ | MFZ | LFZ | NFZ | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bole | Branch | Leaf | Root | Total | Bole | Branch | Leaf | Root | Total | Bole | Branch | Leaf | Root | Total | Bole | Branch | Leaf | Root | Total | |
| Adina cardifolia | 1.05 | 1.05 | 0.12 | 0.39 | 2.62 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 5.53 | 9.28 | 0.52 | 2.08 | 17.40 | 5.75 | 8.27 | 0.57 | 2.16 | 16.75 |
| Aegle marmelos | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.64 | 0.68 | 0.07 | 0.24 | 1.64 |
| Anogeissus latifolia | 3.55 | 12.66 | 0.76 | 2.59 | 19.56 | 2.25 | 6.42 | 0.42 | 1.52 | 10.60 | 2.54 | 7.73 | 0.49 | 1.75 | 12.51 | 4.07 | 12.51 | 0.79 | 2.81 | 20.19 |
| Boswellia serrata | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2.25 | 3.39 | 0.22 | 0.85 | 6.70 |
| Bridelia retiosa | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3.06 | 4.13 | 0.31 | 1.15 | 8.64 |
| Buchanania lanzan | 0.19 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.37 | 1.20 | 0.97 | 0.17 | 0.36 | 2.71 | 3.63 | 3.99 | 0.52 | 1.08 | 9.22 | 3.05 | 4.83 | 0.42 | 0.89 | 9.19 |
| Careya arborea | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.52 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Casearia graveolens | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.52 |
| Casearia graveolens | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1.10 | 0.91 | 0.13 | 0.41 | 2.55 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Cassia fistula | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.41 | 0.38 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.98 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Dalbergia paniculata | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2.25 | 3.39 | 0.22 | 0.85 | 6.70 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3.72 | 6.12 | 0.35 | 1.40 | 11.58 |
| Diospyrous melanoxylon | 1.00 | 0.90 | 0.08 | 0.37 | 2.36 | 6.20 | 8.00 | 0.44 | 2.12 | 16.77 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 4.05 | 4.49 | 0.30 | 1.42 | 10.26 |
| Gardenia latifolia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.95 | 1.11 | 0.10 | 0.35 | 2.51 |
| Gardenia lucida | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.95 | 1.11 | 0.10 | 0.35 | 2.51 |
| Gardenia resinifera | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.46 | 0.36 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 1.05 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Grwia tiliaefolia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 4.80 | 5.28 | 0.40 | 1.64 | 12.13 | 1.05 | 1.12 | 0.10 | 0.37 | 2.64 | 4.32 | 4.76 | 0.36 | 1.47 | 10.92 |
| Kydia calycina | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2.00 | 2.16 | 0.22 | 0.75 | 5.13 |
| Lagerstroemia parviflora | 0.78 | 0.69 | 0.11 | 0.37 | 1.95 | 4.26 | 4.46 | 0.54 | 2.31 | 11.58 | 0.57 | 0.53 | 0.08 | 0.29 | 1.47 | 2.37 | 2.63 | 0.29 | 1.35 | 6.64 |
| Lannea coromandelica | 3.48 | 5.22 | 0.34 | 1.30 | 10.34 | 6.48 | 10.39 | 0.62 | 2.43 | 19.91 | 1.93 | 1.91 | 0.22 | 0.72 | 4.78 | 2.26 | 2.36 | 0.25 | 0.85 | 5.72 |
| Madhuca latifolia | 2.90 | 4.06 | 0.29 | 1.09 | 8.34 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 10.35 | 24.06 | 0.85 | 3.89 | 39.14 | 4.16 | 5.64 | 0.43 | 1.56 | 11.78 |
| Mitragyna parviflora | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1.72 | 2.06 | 0.18 | 0.64 | 4.61 |
| Ougeinia oojeinensis | 2.15 | 2.82 | 0.22 | 0.81 | 6.00 | 2.43 | 2.98 | 0.26 | 0.91 | 6.58 | 11.44 | 16.38 | 1.14 | 4.29 | 33.25 | 4.46 | 4.96 | 0.49 | 1.67 | 11.57 |
| Phyllanthus emblica | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1.61 | 1.94 | 0.17 | 0.59 | 4.31 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.50 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.50 |
| Pterocarpus marsupium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 4.69 | 6.16 | 0.21 | 1.31 | 12.37 | 4.16 | 4.58 | 0.22 | 1.13 | 10.09 |
| Saccopetalum tomentosum | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.57 | 0.28 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 1.08 | 2.77 | 1.71 | 0.27 | 0.84 | 5.59 |
| Schleichera oleosa | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.52 | 1.75 | 2.44 | 0.17 | 0.66 | 5.02 | 0.23 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.52 |
| Semecarpus anacardium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.87 | 0.86 | 0.10 | 0.33 | 2.16 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Shorea robusta | 16.88 | 26.29 | 1.67 | 6.34 | 51.19 | 18.07 | 29.26 | 1.73 | 6.79 | 55.85 | 18.27 | 28.41 | 1.77 | 6.86 | 55.31 | 43.86 | 85.45 | 3.86 | 16.49 | 149.66 |
| Sterculia urens | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.87 | 0.73 | 0.10 | 0.32 | 2.03 |
| Syzygium cumini | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.56 | 0.43 | 0.07 | 0.21 | 1.27 |
| Tectona grandis | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 5.16 | 2.47 | 1.08 | 1.48 | 10.18 |
| Terminalia belerica | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0.64 | 0.68 | 0.07 | 0.24 | 1.64 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Terminalia chebula | 4.00 | 5.24 | 0.41 | 1.50 | 11.15 | 0.64 | 0.56 | 0.08 | 0.24 | 1.51 | 2.66 | 3.76 | 0.26 | 1.00 | 7.68 | 1.17 | 1.29 | 0.13 | 0.44 | 3.03 |
| Terminalia tomentoso | 0.87 | 0.86 | 0.10 | 0.33 | 2.16 | 1.31 | 1.69 | 0.13 | 0.49 | 3.63 | 8.58 | 11.54 | 0.87 | 3.22 | 24.21 | 9.72 | 14.31 | 0.95 | 3.65 | 28.63 |
| Total | 36.87 | 59.89 | 4.13 | 15.15 | 116.03 | 52.60 | 76.26 | 5.31 | 20.66 | 154.83 | 76.60 | 120.40 | 7.62 | 28.83 | 233.45 | 118.70 | 182.72 | 12.22 | 44.72 | 358.36 |
Floristic structure
Floristic analysis is the key to assessing and understanding the stands' ecological condition. Forest fire intensity and return interval in addition to abiotic and biotic factors accelerate the alteration process of the vegetation mix, structure, and diversity in due course of time (Hassan et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2017). The higher species of seedlings, saplings, and trees were found in NFZ as compared to the rest of the sites (HFZ, MFZ, LFZ). Similarly, (Kafle, 2006) also reported that the protected area possesses a higher tree population and species richness than the fire-affected areas which supports the present findings. A similar trend was also revealed by (Kodandapani, 2008) in his study comprising ecological characteristics of forest fires in a tropical forest of the Western Ghats. The frequent fire incidents do not provide the time for natural recovery and selected or fire- hardy species can only withstand or survive. This in turn alters the overall floristic structure and dynamics of the forest stands as revealed by the HFZ (Bargali et al., 2023; Jhariya et al., 2012; Kittur et al., 2014).
Stand density-GBH relationship
The exponential relationship between population and GBH reflects a young forest structure this could be due to quicker turnover, low biomass accumulation, and anthropogenic removal in the dry tropical forest. (Singh and Singh, 1991) found that 3-5% of the vegetation population exceeded 50 cm GBH in the tropical forest of Uttar Pradesh and (Chaturvedi et al., 2011) mentioned these trends for similar forest types. Similarly, (Jhariya and Yadav, 2018) found 72.66% and 73.87% of individuals, respectively in natural and teak stands of northern Chhattisgarh have ≤10 cm girth and 1.27-6.22% population have＞50 cm girth class. (Murphy and Lugo, 1986) reported that 2-3% of individuals exceeded 10 cm GBH in the Puerto Rican sub-tropical dry forest which corroborates with present findings. (Longhi et al., 1999) have reported 42% of individuals with 15-25 CBH and only 2.2% with CBH > 65 for fragments of the deciduous seasonal forest in Brazil. (Kujur et al., 2021) found 66.05–73.04% of individuals have ≤10 cm girth and 1.62–3.48% of individuals were distributed in girth class ＞50 cm.
Population structure
The representation of seedling, sapling, and tree stages reflects the health and future status of the forest. The distribution of trees as per size class entails the stand’s population structure (Dhaulkhndi et al., 2008; Khan et al., 1987; Saxena and Singh, 1984). The forest fire (Murthi et al., 2002), grazing pressure, light availability (Teketay, 1997), soil factors, and anthropogenic pressure were reported to affect the regeneration of the forest. This is dependent and regulated through various internal processes in addition to external causes (Barker and Patrick, 1994). The number of tree, sapling, and seedling showed consistent reduction from seedling to sapling and sapling to tree stage. This revealed good natural regeneration but the subsequent conversion from seedling to sapling and tree class were very low or dramatic. This could be related to more fire interference on sapling and intermediate classes towards utilization as poles, fodder, fuelwood, etc.
Across the fire regimes, class A was found to be dominant which reflects frequent reproduction (Kittur et al., 2014; Jhariya et al., 2012; Knight, 1975; West et al., 1981). This trend shows substantial utilization of older size classes as well as heavy mortality in lower size classes. In class (A), D. melanoxylon was dominant in all the sites except NFZ and unable to reach succeeding classes as a dominant species. This is because humans set fires to burn the ground litter and for good sprouts of various species and grasses. The heavy stress arrests the growth and limits the species from reaching the next stage of the life cycle. The hump in intermediate classes reflects the faster growth and least mortality of individuals (West et al., 1981). Once the species exceed the class B and enters into the initial class of the tree such as A. latifolia, B. lanzan, L. parviflora, M. latifolia and O. oojeinensis in HFZ, A. latifolia, B. lanzan, L. parviflora, L. coromandelica and O. oojeinensis in MFZ, A. latifolia, B. lanzan, O. oojeinensis, T. chebula in LFZ and in NFZ A. latifolia, B. lanzan, M. latifolia and O. oojeinensis. In the different fire regimes, NFZ and LFZ were regenerating well due to the presence of higher trees that supply the seeds for natural regeneration. However, MFZ showed comparatively better regeneration than the HFZ which did not show good regeneration. Khurana has concluded that biotic interference leads to eroding the soil and making it nutrient-poor which could not favour natural regeneration (Khurana, 2007).
Wildfire and regeneration status
Anthropogenic interferences alter the qualitative and quantitative traits of the forest ecosystem (Shankar, 2001). The species with rare occurrences that contribute substantial diversity are at risk of extinction due to various pressures and least natural regeneration. Among them, human interference is more disturbing to the biota of the ecosystem. Forest fires do not provide enough time for natural recovery or balance in the regeneration dynamics of the ecosystem. The presence of a mother tree or large trees influences the overall population of the seedlings (Rao et al., 1990). Change in seedling and sapling density shows that anthropogenic disturbances were degrading forests with the passing of time without possibilities of rejuvenation under the influence of forest fire. The good regeneration potential of the species revealed the compatibility of species with the site conditions (Dhaulkhndi et al., 2008).
The regeneration potential of the species is altered by climatic perturbation and anthropogenic disturbances. The density of the succeeding phase from seedlings to saplings and trees gets reduced due to the forest fire and competition for similar resources. The regeneration success depends upon the seedling initiation ability, ability to survive, and growth traits under a given environmental setup (Good and Good, 1972). Fire events also determine the floristic composition by selection of species that will retained in the particular stand. Fire-sensitive species are eliminated by the fire where the interval is regular, in the early phase of succession or establishment phase (Chandler et al., 1983). Two tactics determine the species' response to fire frequency viz., species that are capable of sprouting can resist or withstand different fire regimes whereas those that maintain their population, and seed production or favored under sporadic fire (Keeley, 1981). Besides these some functional traits such as sprouting ability and thickness of bark allow the species to resist or tolerate the fire (Saha and Howe, 2003) while the non-sprouting and species having thin bark are more sensitive and vulnerable to fire (Gosper et al., 2012; Hoffmann et al., 2012). This mechanism alters the regeneration potential of the species under different fire regimes.
Forest biomass
The Forest fire has a significant impact on the vegetation, its development and biomass as well as its accumulation pattern (Sannigrahi et al., 2020) depending upon the severity, frequency and fire return intervals. Among different fire regimes, HFZ showed a severe reduction in the tree biomass. As compared to NFZ, fire caused a reduction in the 68.94% bole, 67.22% branch, 66.20% leaf, 66.12% root, and 67.62% total biomass in HFZ. In MFZ, the reduction in the biomass as compared to NFZ was 55.69% bole, 58.26% branch, 56.55% leaf, 53.80% root, and 56.79% total biomass. LFZ showed a 35.47% reduction of biomass in bole, 34.11% in branch, 37.64% in leaf, 35.53% in root, and 34.86% total biomass as compared to the NFZ. This might be due to the stress condition and limiting environment (de Meira Junior et al., 2020) developed by the fire events that would arrest the growth and functional traits as compared to the control or NFZ (Raj and Jhariya, 2021a, 2021b). High and frequent fire alters the plant density and diversity (Bargali et al., 2022) and suppresses the growth and dry matter production which in turn causes the loss in biomass and productivity of the forest ecosystem (Zhang et al., 2015).
Forest fire has a substantial impact on forest regeneration, population structure, and forest biomass. There is wider floral variation in different fire regimes. The higher number of plant species, families, regeneration, and biomass were recorded in the NFZ and lowest at the HFZ. The relationship between plant density and girth class showed the small structure of the forest as a majority of the contribution (86.37−91.71%) of the individuals belongs to the ≤10 cm girth class. The population structure revealed that tree, sapling, and seedling showed a consistent decrease from the seedling to sapling stage and also from the sapling to trees stage. Among different fire regimes, Anogeissus latifolia, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyrous melanoxylon, Lannea coromandelica, Shorea robusta, and Syzygium cumini showed good regeneration potential. The total biomass was higher under NFZ and lowest in HFZ. The fire causes the reduction of bole biomass from 35.47-68.97%, 34.11-67.22% reduction in branch biomass, 37.64-66.20% reduction in leaf biomass, 35.53-66.12% in root biomass, and 34.86-67.62% in total biomass. The reduction was higher in HFZ followed by MFZ and LFZ, respectively. Thus, the forest should be protected from fire followed by proper management strategies for conservation of the intact forest. Further, Anogeissus latifolia, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyrous melanoxylon, Lannea coromandelica, Shorea robusta, and Syzygium cumini should be promoted for the plantation for proper stocking and where the fire incidence is common.
Authors are thankful to Dr. S.R Gupta, Former Professor, Department of Botany, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India for reading and suggesting the corrections during the preparation of manuscript. Thanks are also due to the authorities of Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, India, and State Forest Department Chhattisgarh India for granting permissions and necessary support during the study period.
Not applicable.
Competing InterestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' ContributionsMKJ: Conducted the experiments, data curation, analysed the data, wrote, reviewed, and edited the MS.
ST: Literature, reviewed and framed the MS.
LS: Provided technical guidance, conceptualization, supervision, and review of MS.
JSS: Editing and reviewing the MS
FundingNot applicable.
Availability of Data and MaterialsNot applicable.
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